Global patterns of ecologically unequal exchange: Implications for sustainability in the 21st century
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Authors
Ecologically unequal exchange theory posits asymmetric net flows of biophysical resources from poorer to richer countries. To date, empirical evidence to support this theoretical notion as a systemic aspect of the global economy is largely lacking. Through environmentally-extended multi-regional input-output modelling, we provide empirical evidence for ecologically unequal exchange as a persistent feature of the global economy from 1990 to 2015. We identify the regions of origin and final consumption for four resource groups: materials, energy, land, and labor. By comparing the monetary exchange value of resources embodied in trade, we find significant international disparities in how resource provision is compensated. Value added per ton of raw material embodied in exports is 11 times higher in high-income countries than in those with the lowest income, and 28 times higher per unit of embodied labor. With the exception of embodied land for China and India, all other world regions serve as net exporters of all types of embodied resources to high-income countries across the 1990–2015 time period. On aggregate, ecologically unequal exchange allows high-income countries to simultaneously appropriate resources and to generate a monetary surplus through international trade. This has far-reaching implications for global sustainability and for the economic growth prospects of nations.
| Original language | English |
|---|---|
| Article number | 106824 |
| Journal | Ecological Economics |
| Volume | 179 |
| Number of pages | 14 |
| ISSN | 0921-8009 |
| DOIs | |
| Publication status | Published - 01.01.2021 |
Bibliographical note
Funding Information:
This work was supported by the Volkswagenstiftung Germany and the Niedersächsisches Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Kultur (Grant Number A112269). CD was additionally funded by the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research. AS acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, through the “María de Maeztu” program for Units of Excellence (MDM-2015-0552) and from the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) through project T 949-G27. SG and HPW received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 725525).
Funding Information:
This work was supported by the Volkswagenstiftung Germany and the Niedersächsisches Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Kultur (Grant Number A112269 ). CD was additionally funded by the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research. AS acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness , through the “María de Maeztu” program for Units of Excellence ( MDM-2015-0552 ) and from the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) through project T 949-G27 . SG and HPW received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 725525 ).
Publisher Copyright:
© 2020 Elsevier B.V.
- Ecosystems Research - Ecologically unequal exchange, Structural equation model
- Environmental planning - Embodied trade flows, Environmentally-extended multi-regional input-output analysis
- Sustainability Science - International inequality, International trade